magnetostrictive – AUTOMATION INSIGHTS

Back to the Basics – Measuring

In the last post about the Basics of Automation, we discussed how objects can be detected, collected and positioned with the help of sensors. Now, let’s take a closer look at how non-contact measurement – both linear and rotary – works to measure distance, travel, angles, and pressure.

Measuring travel, distance, position, angle and pressure are common tasks in automation. The measuring principles used are as varied as the different tasks.

Sensor Technologies

Magnetostrictive enables simultaneous measurement of multiple positions and can be used in challenging environments.
Magnet coded enables the highest accuracy and real-time measurement.
Inductive is used for integration in extremely tight spaces and is suitable for short distances.
Photoelectric features flexible range and is unaffected by the color or surface properties of the target object.

Different Sensors for Different Applications

Distance measurement

Janni1 Disc brakes are used at various locations
in wind power plants. With their durability and precise measurement, inductive distance sensors monitor these brake discs continuously and provide a timely warning if the brake linings need to be changed.

In winding and unwinding equipment, a photoelectric sensor continuously measures the increasing or decreasing roll diameter. This means the rolls can be changed with

minimal stoppages.

Linear position measurement

Janni4 Workpieces are precisely positioned on the

slide of a linear axis. This allows minimal loss of production time while ensuring quality. Magnetic encoders installed along the linear axis report the actual slide position to the controller (PLC) continuously and in real time — even when the slide is moving at a speed of up to 10 m/s.

In a machine tool the clamping state
of a spindle must be continuously monitored during machining. This improves results on the workpiece and increases the reliability of the overall system. Inductive positioning systems provide continuous feedback to the controller: whether the spindle is unclamped, clamped with a tool or clamped without a tool.

Rotational position measurement

Janni5 Workpieces such as a metal plate are printed, engraved or cut on a cut/print machine. This demands special accuracy in positioning it on the machine. Magnetic encoders on both rotating axes of the machine measure the position of the workpiece and ensure an even feed rate.

In a parabolic trough system,
sunlight is concentrated on parabolic troughs using parabolic mirrors allowing the heat energy to be stored. To achieve the optimal energy efficiency, the position of the parabolic mirror must be guided to match the sun’s path. Inclination sensors report the actual position of the parabolic mirror to the controller, which then adjusts as needed.

Pressure and Level Measurement

Janni7 Consistently high surface quality of the machined workpiece must be ensured in a machine tool. This requires continuous monitoring of the coolant feed system pressure. Pressure sensors can reliably monitor the pressure and shut down the machine within a few milliseconds when the defined pressure range is violated.

Janni8 In many tanks and vats, the fill height of the liquid must be continually measured. This is accomplished using ultrasonic sensors, which note levels regardless of color, transparency or surface composition of the medium. These sensors detect objects made of virtually any material (even sound-absorbing) including liquids, granulates and powders.

Stay tuned for future posts that will cover the essentials of automation. To learn more about the Basics of Automation in the meantime, visit www.balluff.com.

When and Where to Use Continuous Cylinder Position Sensing

The role of smart cylinders — hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders with integrated position detection capability — has increased as manufacturers constantly strive to improve efficiency through automation. Smart cylinders can use either continuous or discrete position sensing, providing manufacturers with options, but possibly leaving them with questions on which is best for their application.

In this post we will review the benefits of continuous position sensors and list the applications where this is the best fit.

Continuous position sensors provide near real-time position feedback throughout the entire stroke of the cylinder making them the ideal choice for applications at the higher end of the control spectrum. Closed-loop servohydraulic systems can achieve sophisticated, dynamic control of motion across the entire cylinder stroke.

Continuous position sensors are commonly used when the application calls for closed-loop servo control, where the position, speed, acceleration, and deceleration of the cylinder must be controlled. Closed-loop servohydraulics have been widely used in industrial applications, such as sawmills, steel processing and tire manufacturing, and more recently in cylinders in off-highway equipment.

Magnetostrictive linear position sensors are the most commonly used continuous position sensors in hydraulic cylinders. These sensors are installed into the back end of the cylinder. The sensor detects the position of a magnet attached to the piston and provides a continuous, absolute position signal.

Blog — Magnetostrictive linear position sensor installed in hydraulic cylinder

The sensor is rated to withstand the full pressure of the hydraulic system. Magnetostrictive technology offers the advantage of being completely non-contact, meaning it requires no mechanical contact between the sensor and the moving cylinder and is not subject to wear and performance degradation. In addition, numerous electrical interface options are available, from simple analog (0 to 10V or 4-20mA) to high-performance industrial fieldbus interfaces that offer advanced functionality.

Continuous position sensors can also be used in pneumatic cylinders. While closed-loop servo control with pneumatics is not as common as it is with hydraulics, there are situations where pneumatic cylinders require continuous position sensing capability. For example, low-pressure pneumatic cylinders are sometimes used as measurement probes, or touch probes, where the cylinder rod is extended until it touches a part to be measured or gaged. In these situations, it is beneficial to be able to get continuous position feedback, especially when there is variability in the measured part.

To learn more about cylinder position sensing, visit www.balluff.com.

IO-Link Measurement Sensors Solve Application Challenges

In industrial distance and position measurement applications, one size definitely does not fit all. Depending on the application, the position or distance to be measured can range from just a few millimeters up to dozens of meters. No single industrial sensor technology is capable of meeting these diverse requirements.

Fortunately, machine builders, OEM’s and end-users can now choose from a wide variety of IO-Link distance and position measurement sensors to suit nearly any requirement. In this article, we’ll do a quick rundown of some of the more popular IO-Link measurement sensor types.

(For more information about the advantages of IO-Link versus traditional analog measurement sensors, see the following blog posts, Solving Analog Integration Conundrum, Simplify Your Existing Analog Sensor Connection, and How Do I Make My Analog Sensor Less Complex?)

Short Range Inductive Distance Sensors

These sensors, available in tubular and block Scott Image1.JPG style form factors are used to measure very short distances, typically in the 1…5 mm range. The operating principle is similar to a standard on/off inductive proximity sensor. However, instead of discrete on/off operation, the distance from the face of the sensor to a steel target is expressed as a continuously variable value. Their extremely small size makes them ideal for applications in confined spaces.

Inductive Linear Position Sensors

Inductive linear position sensors are available in several block style form factors, and are used for position measurement over stroke lengths up to about 135 mm. These types of sensors use an array of inductive coils to accurately measure the position of a metal target. Compact form factors and low stroke-to-overall length factor make them well suited for application with limited space.

BIP(1)_46630_Produktnews_korr BIP(2)_55370_00_P_00_00_00

Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensors

IO-Link Magnetostrictive linear position sensors are available in rod style form factors for hydraulic cylinder position feedback, and in external mount profile form factors for general factory automation position monitoring applications. These sensors use time-proven, non-contact magnetostrictive technology to provide accurate, absolute position feedback over stroke lengths up to 4.8 meters.

Laser Optical Distance Sensors

Scott Image 4.JPG Laser distance sensors use either a time-of-flight measuring principle (for long range) or triangulation measuring principle (for shorter range) to precisely measure sensor to target distance from up to 6 meters away. Laser distance sensors are especially useful in applications where the sensor must be located away from the target to be measured.

Magnetic Linear Encoders

IO-Link magnetic linear encoders use an absolute-coded Scott Image 5 flexible magnet tape and a compact sensing head to provide extremely accurate position, absolute position feedback over stroke lengths up to 8 meters. Flexible installation, compact overall size, and extremely fast response time make magnetic linear encoders an excellent choice for demanding, fast moving applications.

IO-Link Measurement Sensor Trends

The proliferation of available IO-Link measurement sensors is made possible, in large part, due to the implementation of IO-Link specification 1.1, which allows faster data transmission and parameter server functionality. The higher data transfer speed is especially important for measurement sensors because continuous distance or position values require much more data compared to discrete on/off data. The server parameter function allows device settings to be stored in the sensor and backed up in the IO-Link master. That means that a sensor can be replaced, and all relevant settings can be downloaded from master to sensor automatically.

To learn about IO-Link in general and IO-Link measurement sensors in particular, visit www.balluff.com.

In-Cylinder Position Sensing in Electrically Conductive Hydraulic Fluids

The standard for hydraulic fluid in the industry is mineral oil, which is a dielectric medium that does not conduct electricity. Yet environmental concerns have led to the search for alternatives that are less harmful in case of leaks and spills. One development is biodegradable oils, typically with biological origins, often called “bio-oils” for short. They behave in many ways like mineral oil with a key difference in that they can be electrically conductive.

Another alternative hydraulic fluid is water-glycol mixtures, commonly known as the anti-freeze found in your liquid-cooled automobile engine. Water-glycol solutions are used for several reasons, including environmental concerns but more often conditions of extreme heat or extreme cold. They have much lower viscosity than oil, and there are several fluid power application considerations as a result, but water-glycol mixtures, like bio-oils, are electrically conductive.

So, when it comes to cylinder position sensing, why should we care whether or not the hydraulic fluid is electrically conductive? Well, because it could come back to bite us if we put an incompatible position sensing technology into a cylinder that is filled with a conductive fluid.

I recently met an engineer who’d run into this exact situation. A hydraulic cylinder was ordered from the manufacturer with an “integrated position feedback sensor.” The feedback sensor turned out to be a resistive potentiometric type, in other words, a linear potentiometer or “pot.” The entire length of the resistive material is “wetted” inside the cylinder, along with the traveling “wiper” that moves with the piston. In typical applications with non-conductive, mineral-based hydraulic fluid, this works fine (although linear pots do tend to be somewhat fragile and do wear out over time). However, when the resistive material and wiper is wetted in a conductive liquid, all kinds of wrong start happening. The signal becomes very erratic, unstable, and lacks resolution and repeatability. This is because the fluid is basically short-circuiting the operation of the open-element linear potentiometer.

This caused quite a headache for the engineer’s customer and subsequently for the engineer. Fortunately, a replacement cylinder was ordered, this time with a non-contact magnetostrictive linear position sensor. The magnetostrictive sensor is supplied with a pressure-rated, protective stainless steel tube that isolates the electrical sensing element from the hydraulic medium. The position marker is a magnet instead of a wiper, which the sensor can detect through the walls of the stainless steel pressure tube. So, a magnetostrictive sensor is absolutely unaffected by the electrical properties of the hydraulic medium.

A magnetostrictive linear position sensor carries a lot of performance and application advantages over linear pots that make them a superior technology in most applications, but when it comes to conductive hydraulic fluids they are definitely the preferred choice.

To learn more about linear position sensors visit www.balluff.com.

Position and Level Measurement for Clean Energy

A few years ago, a new gas station opened in our neighborhood situated at the edge of town. Some new customers started showing up with camouflage painted cars, especially early in the morning or late at night. They always seemed to be a little shy, never leaving the cars alone and sometimes, while grabbing a cup of coffee, they would even cover their cars with a tarp. It became obvious that this gas station was also used as a base for the test fleet of some major car manufacturer, and even after years, it is still exciting to get a glimpse of a new prototype. Working for the international Balluff energy team, it was even more exciting to see that a new hydrogen fuel dispenser had been installed at this gas station a few months ago.

Hydrogen seems to be one of the promising possibilities to store surplus energy from wind or solar power and to realize climate friendly mobility. But the processing and transportation of hydrogen poses new challenges for the equipment with regard to pressure, temperature and material properties.

One of the possibilities for position and level measurement in such a harsh environment is magnetostrictive measurement systems.

This type of transducer comprises current position information transferred via magnetic fields contactless through the housing wall to the internal sensor element. The operation principle enables the installation in hermetically sealed rod/housing against the process medium.

Another point to note is the presence of a possibly hazardous atmosphere that can be ignited by electric sparks or hot surfaces. Therefore the measurement systems installed need to be designed in accordance with applying explosion protection regulations.

Considering the above mentioned framework conditions, specific part testing and verification is necessary within the development process as well as in series production. In addition the necessary approvals and certificates have to be provided on an international scale.

For more information about the future market of Clean Energy, the measurement systems in use and the cooperation during the R&D process, visit the full report from Linde AG Austria (AUTlook 4/2017).

External Position Feedback for Hydraulic Cylinders

EDITED Image_HF — *Position Sensor Mounted Internally in a Hydraulic Cylinder*
*(Image credit:* Cowan Dynamics)

Advantages of in-cylinder sensor mounting include:

Simplicity. The cylinder manufacturer “preps” the cylinder for the sensor and may install it as an extra-cost option.
Ruggedness. The sensor element is protected inside the cylinder. Only the electronics head is exposed to the rigors of the industrial environment.
Compactness. The sensor is contained inside the cylinder, so it does not add to the cross-sectional area occupied by the cylinder.
Direct Position Measurement. Because the target magnet is mounted on the piston, the sensor is directly monitoring the motion of the cylinder without any interposing linkages that might introduce some position error, especially in highly dynamic, high-acceleration / deceleration applications.

Potential disadvantages of in-cylinder sensor mounting may include:

Sensor Cost. Cylinder-mounted position sensors require a rugged, fully-sealed stainless-steel sensor probe to withstand the dynamic pressures inside a cylinder. This adds some manufacturing cost.
Cylinder Cost. The procedure of gun-drilling a cylinder rod consumes machine time and depletes tooling, adding manufacturing cost over a standard cylinder. Refer to additional comments under Small Cylinder Bores / Rods below.
Cylinder Delivery Time. Prepping a new cylinder for a sensor adds manufacturing time due to additional processing steps, some of which may be outsourced by the cylinder manufacturer, increasing overall shipping and handling time.
Overall Installed Length. Because the sensor electronics and cabling protrude from the back end of the cylinder, this adds to the overall length of the installed cylinder. Refer to additional comments under Small Cylinder Bores / Rods below.
Service Access. In case sensor repair is required, there must be sufficient clearance or access behind the cylinder to pull out the full length of the sensor probe.
Small Cylinder Bores / Rods. Some cylinder bores and rod diameters are too small to allow for gun-drilling a hole large enough to install the ~10.2 mm diameter sensor tube and allow for proper fluid flow around it. In tie rod cylinders, the distance between the rod nuts may be too small to allow the flange of the position sensor to fully seat against the O-ring. In these cases, a mounting boss must be provided to move the mounting position back past the tie rods. This adds cost as well as increases overall installed length.

Edited Image 2

In cases where the advantages of in-cylinder mounting are outweighed or rendered impractical by some of the disadvantages, an externally-mounted position sensor can be considered. The list of advantages and disadvantages looks similar, but reversed.

Position Sensor Mounted Externally on Hydraulically-Actuated Equipment

Advantages of external sensor mounting include:

Sensor Cost. Externally-mounted magnetostrictive position sensors are typically made from an aluminum extrusion and die-cast end caps with gaskets, saving cost compared to all-stainless-steel welded and pressure-rated construction.
Cylinder Cost. The cylinder can be a standard type with no special machining work needed to accommodate installation of the sensor.
Cylinder Delivery Time. Since no additional machine work is needed, the cylinder manufacturer can deliver within their standard lead time for standard cylinders.
Overall Installed Length. Typically, the external sensor is mounted in parallel to the cylinder, so overall length is not increased.
Service Access. The externally-mounted sensor is easily accessible for service by simply unbolting its mounting brackets and pulling it off the equipment.

Disadvantages of external sensor mounting may include:

Complexity. The machine designer or end user must provide the means to mount the sensor brackets and the means to position a floating magnet target over the sensor housing. Alternatively, a captive sliding magnet target may be used with a length of operating rod and swivel attachment hardware.
Exposure to Damage. Unless guarded or installed in a protected area, an externally mounted position sensor is subject to being mechanically damaged.
Space Requirements. There must be enough empty space around the cylinder or on the machine to accommodate the sensor housing and operating envelope of the moving magnetic target.
Indirect Position Measurement. Any time a floating target magnet is mounted to a bracket, there is the potential for position error due to the bracket getting bent, flexing under acceleration / deceleration, mounting bolts loosening, etc. In the case of operating rods for captive sliding magnets, there will be some mechanical take-up in the swivel joints upon change of direction, adding to position hysteresis. There is also the potential for rod flexing under heavy acceleration / deceleration – particularly when the rod is acting under compression vs. tension. Take note of the amount of sliding friction of the captive magnet on the sensor rails; some sensor magnet designs offer high friction and stiff resistance to movement that can increase operating rod deflection and resultant position error.

In conclusion, be sure to consider all aspects of an application requiring cylinder position feedback and choose the approach that maximizes the most important advantages and eliminates or minimizes any potential disadvantages. It may be that an externally-mounted position sensor will solve some of the challenges being faced with implementing a traditional in-cylinder application.

For more information about internally- and externally-mounted cylinder position sensors, visit www.balluff.com.

Difficulties Faced in Externally Mounted Magnetic Transducer Applications

In a previous blog post, we looked at the basic operating principle of magnetostriction and how it is applied in a linear position transducer. In this post we’re going to take a more in-depth look at this popular sensing technique and the factors that can contribute to its usability in transducer applications.

magnetostricive response — Figure 1: Magnetostrictive response (λ) as the absolute value of the Magnetic Field (H) changes.

As we’ve seen, the magnetostrictive effect is produced using a permanent magnet that is fixed either around or mounted some distance away from the ferromagnetic alloy that is being used. Now, if you’re like me and you’ve spent countless nights lying awake wondering how the effect of magnetostriction in a transducer is changed by the strength of the applied magnetic field and how that pertains to the output of a magnetostrictive transducer, then there isn’t need to look much further than this blog post. The strength of the magnetic field (which is directly related to distance through an inverse cubed relationship) projected onto the ferromagnetic material plays an incredibly critical role in the effect of magnetostriction. In Figure 1 you can see a depiction of the how the magnetostrictive effect varies at differing values of magnetic field strength.

Since magnetostriction does not behave perfectly linearly, some consideration must be taken into account when choosing a magnet and mounting system for your transducer. Potential problems occur if the magnet is mounted too far away from or too close to the transducer (thus producing either too much or too little magnetic field). But before we explore why too much or too little magnetic field is a problem, let’s compare it to the most desirable magnetic conditions.

Figure 2: Standard Application in which a magnet is in a fixed position therefore, allowing no variance in the strength of the magnetic field seen by the ferromagnetic material.

Ideally, the goal is to choose a magnet and mounting distance which can produce a magnetic field that will fall within the green region from Figure 1. In this region, the magnetostrictive effect can be approximated as linear, thus being used to produce a strong and consistently predictable output response. As for what actual magnetic field strength values fall within this range, that is almost entirely dependent on the properties of the ferromagnetic alloy that you are using. In a standard application, for instance, one in which a magnet and transducer is fixed inside of a hydraulic cylinder where the magnet is mounted in a fixed position relative to the transducer rod (as shown in Figure 2.), this magnetic field value will not vary so there is no reason to worry about how the magnetostrictive response could vary. The device is designed to operate in Figure 1’s green region.

Figure 3: Externally mounted magnets that are not fixed to the transducer typically need to have stronger magnetic properties for the field to reach the device. However, if it is too strong the magnetostrictive effect can saturate and cause a loss of output.

Problems can arise when dealing with externally mounted transducers in which the user has a significant amount more freedom in the selection of magnet and its mounting design. These instances could look incredibly different depending on the application. However, Figure 3 shows how this sort of design would come into play in a “floating” magnet application. At greater distances or when using weaker, non-standard magnets, the magnetic field will fall into the first red zone on Figure 1. In this region, the magnetic strength is too weak for a signal to be processed as an output by the transducer. This is primarily caused by the effect of magnetic hysteresis which is essentially a “charge up” zone and creates an exponential relationship in this zone, rather than the desired linear relationship. On the other hand, if you attempt to use a strong, rare-earth magnet too close to the transducer, it will produce too strong of a magnetic field and move beyond the green region into the second red zone. The problem here is that the magnetostriction will saturate and can potentially cause output loss. Also, similarly to the weaker magnetic field strength, the behavior cannot be approximated using the same linear relationship that we see in the green zone of Figure 1. As with the green region of the graph, the magnetic field strength values that lie in the red zones are dependent on the properties of the material as well as the response processing electronics of the transducer.

Due to these issues, there are many things to consider if you’re using an externally mounted transducer and choosing a non-standard mounting method in your application. You need to be careful when mounting a magnet too far away or using a rare-earth magnet too close to the transducer.

For more information visit www.balluff.us.

Level Sensing in Machine Tools

Certainly the main focus in machine tools is on metal cutting or metal forming processes.

To achieve optimum results in cutting processes coolants and lubricants are applied. In both metal cutting and metal forming processes hydraulic equipment is used (as hydraulics create high forces in compact designs). For coolant, lubricant and hydraulic tanks the usage of level sensors to monitor the tank level of these liquids is required.

Point Level Sensing

For point level sensing (switching output) in many cases capacitive sensors are used. These sensors detect the change of the relative electric permittivity (typically a change of factor 10 from gas to liquid). The capacitive sensors may be mounted at the outside of the tank wall if the tank material is non metallic like e.g. plastic or glass. The installation may even be in retrofit applications yet limited to non metallic tanks up to a certain wall thickness.

When using metal tanks the capacitive sensors enter the inner area of the tank via a thread and a sealing component. Common thread sizes are: M12x1, M18x1, M30x1,5, G 1/4″, NPT 1/4″ etc. For conductive liquids specially designed capacitive level sensors may be used which ignore build up at the sensing surface.

Continuous Level Sensing

Advanced process control uses continuous level sensing principles. The continuous sensor signals e.g. 0..10V, 4…20mA or increasingly IO-Link deliver more information to better control the liquid level, especially relevant in dynamic or precise applications.

When using floats the magnetostrictive sensing principle offers very high resolution of the level value. Tank heights vary from typically 200 mm up to several meters. Another advantage of this sensor principle is the high update rate (supporting fast closed loop systems for level sensing)

In many applications the requirements for the level control solutions are not too demanding. In these cases the ultrasonic principle has gained significant market share within the last years. Ultrasonic sensors do not need a float, installation on the top of the tank is pretty easy, there are even sensor types available which may be used in pressurized tanks (typically up to 6 bar). As ultrasonic sensors quite often are used in special applications, field tests during the design in process are recommended.

Finally hydrostatic pressure transducers are an option for level sensing when using non pressurized tanks (typically connected to ambient pressure through a bore in the upper area of the tank). With the sensor mounted at the bottom of the tank the level is indirectly measured through the pressure of the liquid column above the sensor (e.g. 10m of water level resembles 1 bar).

Summary

Concerning level sensing in metalworking applications in the first step it should be decided whether point level sensing is sufficient or continuous level sensing is required. Having chosen continuous level sensing there are several sensor principles available (selection depending on the application needs and features of the liquids and tank properties). It is always a good engineering practice to prove the preselected sensing concept with field tests.

To learn more visit www.balluff.com

A superior non-contact sensing principle

Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic (iron-based, magnetizeable) materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions in the presence of a magnetic field. In addition to numerous other practical uses, this magnetostrictive effect is ideally suited for use in industrial linear position measurement sensors. Magnetostrictive linear position sensors use an iron-alloy sensing element, typically called a waveguide. Referring to the diagram at right, the waveguide (1) is housed inside a pressure-rated stainless steel tube or in an aluminum extrusion. The position magnet (2) is attached to the moving part of the machine, or the piston of a hydraulic or pneumatic cylinder. Measurements are initiated by applying a short-duration electrical pulse to a conductor (3) attached to the waveguide. The current creates a magnetic field (4) along the waveguide.

The magnetic field from the position magnet interacts with the generated magnetic field, inducing a torsional mechanical strain on the waveguide. When the current pulse stops, the strain is released, causing a mechanical pulse to propagate along the waveguide. This mechanical pulse travels at a constant speed, and is detected at the signal converter (5).

The time between the initial electrical pulse and the received mechanical pulse accurately represents the absolute position of the position magnet and, ultimately position of the machine or hydraulic cylinder. The position of the magnet along the waveguide is calculated by very accurately timing the interval between the initial current pulse, also known as the Interrogation Pulse, and the detection of the mechanical return pulse.

Tag: magnetostrictive

Back to the Basics – Measuring

Sensor Technologies

Different Sensors for Different Applications

Distance measurement

Linear position measurement

Rotational position measurement

Pressure and Level Measurement

Like this:

When and Where to Use Continuous Cylinder Position Sensing

Like this:

Top 5 Automation Insights Posts from 2017

Like this:

IO-Link Measurement Sensors Solve Application Challenges

Like this:

In-Cylinder Position Sensing in Electrically Conductive Hydraulic Fluids

Like this:

Position and Level Measurement for Clean Energy

Like this:

External Position Feedback for Hydraulic Cylinders

Like this:

Difficulties Faced in Externally Mounted Magnetic Transducer Applications

Like this:

Level Sensing in Machine Tools

Point Level Sensing

Continuous Level Sensing

Summary

Like this:

A superior non-contact sensing principle

Like this:

Sensor Technologies

Different Sensors for Different Applications

Distance measurement

Linear position measurement

Rotational position measurement

Pressure and Level Measurement

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this:

Point Level Sensing

Continuous Level Sensing

Summary

Share this:

Like this:

Share this:

Like this: